Dynamics of Tilapia Lake Virus in Recirculating Aquaculture Systems and the Impact of Vaccination on Outbreak Control

Tilapia lake virus (TiLV) is a highly virulent pathogen that has caused substantial mortality in tilapia farms, particularly those with open-water systems. However, TiLV can also emerge and persist in closed environments, such as recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), where environmental accumulation and repeated exposure may intensify infection and sustain outbreaks. In this case study, we conducted three field experiments to better understand TiLV dynamics among Nile tilapia in RAS. In experiment I, we quantified the TiLV levels in the fish, water, and sediment to compare outbreak and no-outbreak conditions and found that the TiLV concentrations in liver samples and the water were significantly higher in the outbreak ponds and positively correlated with increased fish mortality. In experiment II, we used a side-by-side field trial to evaluate the protective efficacy of a TiLV vaccine and its effects on the viral loads in the fish and aquatic environment during outbreaks. The vaccinated fish showed substantially lower cumulative mortality (16.7%) than the unvaccinated controls (37.7%), with a relative percent survival of 55.6%. Additionally, the TiLV concentrations in the pond water of the vaccinated group were significantly lower. In experiment III, we compared the TiLV patterns between RAS and non-RAS operations to determine how water recirculation influences viral accumulation and outbreak severity. The results revealed limited viral accumulation and shorter disease outbreak duration in the non-RAS. Overall, our findings showed that the TiLV levels in the rearing water were closely linked with disease severity in the RAS-based tilapia hatcheries. Continuous water recirculation allowed the virus to build up in the system, which led to more prolonged outbreaks, while the non-RAS conditions with regular water discharge showed lower viral loads and faster recovery. The vaccinated fish had better survival rates and released less virus into the water, which helped reduce infection pressure across the ponds. Together, these results suggest that combining vaccination with good water management and molecular monitoring can provide a practical, noninvasive way to detect and control TiLV outbreaks in intensive farming systems.