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Carbon-13 (¹³C) NMR: Overview01:10

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Carbon-13 is a naturally occurring NMR-active isotope of carbon with a low natural abundance of 1.1%. In contrast, carbon-12 is the most abundant isotope of carbon with zero nuclear spin. Therefore, it is NMR inactive. The gyromagnetic ratio of carbon-13 is smaller than that of protons. As a result, carbon-13 resonance is about 6000 times weaker than proton resonance. For a given magnetic field strength, the resonance frequency of carbon-13 is about one-fourth of the resonance frequency for...
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Hydration of cement is a chemical reaction between cement particles and water. This process occurs primarily through two mechanisms: through-solution and topochemical. In the through-solution process, anhydrous compounds dissolve into their constituents, hydrates form in the solution, and then precipitate from the supersaturated solution. The topochemical process involves solid-state reactions at the cement particle surface. The through-solution process dominates the topochemical process at the...
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Soundness of Cement01:17

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The soundness of cement refers to the ability of cement paste to retain its volume after setting. Unsound cement can lead to expansion and structural damage due to the presence of free lime, magnesia, and calcium sulfate. Free lime hydrates very slowly, expanding and causing unsoundness, which is difficult to detect because it intercrystallizes with other compounds. Magnesia also reacts with water, forming crystals that can disrupt the cement's structure. Calcium sulfate can create...
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Portland Cement01:21

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Portland cement is the essential binding ingredient in concrete, made from finely ground materials including lime, iron, silica, and alumina. Lime is derived primarily from limestone, marble, marl, seashells, and clays, which also supply iron and alumina, while silica is sourced from sand, chalk, and bauxite. Contemporary manufacturing of Portland cement is a significant source of carbon dioxide emissions, prompting research into reducing its content in concrete through alternative...
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The fineness of cement directly influences the rate of hydration, as the hydration begins at the surface of the cement particles. In addition to hydration, the fineness of cement is vital for various properties of concrete including workability, gypsum requirement, and long-term behavior. The fineness of cement is represented in terms of the specific surface of cement which is typically measured in square meters per kilogram, with several methods available for this determination.
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Determination of the Settling Rate of Clay/Cyanobacterial Floccules
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Clays for Low-Carbon Cements: Overview, Progress, and Challenges.

Imane Koufany1,2, Isabel Santacruz1,2, Angeles G De la Torre1,2

  • 1Departamento de Química Inorgánica Cristalografía y Mineralogía University of Malaga Malaga Spain.

Global Challenges (Hoboken, NJ)
|January 29, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Limestone calcined clay cements (LC³), a sustainable alternative to Portland clinker, offer significant CO₂ reductions and good durability. Ongoing research addresses challenges like early strength and workability for wider adoption.

Keywords:
R3 testSCMsartificial pozzolanscompressive strengthslow CO2 footprintmechanical activationthermal activation

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Sustainable Construction
  • Geochemistry

Background:

  • Portland clinker replacement with supplementary cementitious materials is crucial for reducing concrete's embodied carbon.
  • Limestone calcined clay cements (LC³), particularly LC³-50, are emerging as a promising eco-friendly alternative, offering substantial CO₂ emission reductions (~40%) and excellent durability.
  • Despite advantages, LC³ materials face challenges including low early-age strength, workability loss, and reduced carbonation resistance.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review recent advancements in limestone calcined clay cements (LC³).
  • To explore thermal and mechanochemical activation methods for phyllosilicate minerals.
  • To establish correlations for predicting compressive strength and highlight challenges for LC³ adoption.

Main Methods:

  • Review of literature on low-carbon cements, pozzolans, pozzolanic reactions, and phyllosilicate minerals.
  • Analysis of recent progress in thermal and mechanochemical activation techniques.
  • Development of general correlations for compressive strength prediction.

Main Results:

  • LC³-50 demonstrates a significant reduction in CO₂ emissions and good performance in terms of 7-day compressive strength and durability against chloride and sulfate attacks.
  • Tailored admixtures and curing strategies are being developed to mitigate limitations such as low 1-day strength and workability loss.
  • Progress in activation methods enhances the pozzolanic reactivity of clay components.

Conclusions:

  • LC³ cements represent a viable pathway towards sustainable construction materials with reduced environmental impact.
  • Overcoming current limitations through advanced activation and admixture technologies is key to the widespread adoption of LC³.
  • Further research focusing on maximizing pozzolanic reactivity is essential for optimizing these advanced cementitious materials.