Comparative characteristics of in vitro models for studying angiogenesis in cardiovascular disease

Angiogenesis is a central mechanism in the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases. Experimental approaches for studying angiogenesis vary widely, and their translational value depends strongly on model characteristics. We aimed to provide a comparative analysis of contemporary in vitro models used to study angiogenesis and to assess their potential applicability in cardiovascular medicine. Fifty-four publications by domestic and international authors were analyzed. 2D models remain accessible tools for investigating endothelial proliferation, migration, and early angiogenic responses; they are easy to implement and highly reproducible, but lack physiological relevance. 3D models better recapitulate extracellular matrix architecture and cell-cell interactions, providing higher biological fidelity at the cost of increased technical complexity and expense. Microfluidic systems reproduce hemodynamic forces and microenvironmental gradients with the highest degree of physiological relevance, but are time- and resource-intensive. Models based on induced pluripotent stem cells enable patient-specific investigations and disease modeling, although they can be limited by variability and potential instability. No single in vitro platform fully reproduces the complexity of angiogenesis. Model selection should be aligned with specific research objectives. Integrating 3D culture systems, microfluidics, and artificial intelligence-assisted analysis is particularly promising for advancing angiogenesis research in cardiovascular medicine.