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Phase Diagrams

Phase Diagrams

A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a substance. These diagrams indicate the physical states that exist under specific conditions of pressure and temperature and also provide the pressure dependence of the phase-transition temperatures (melting points, sublimation points, boiling points). Regions or areas labeled solid, liquid, and gas represent single phases, while lines or curves represent...

Overview Of Cell Separation And Isolation

Overview Of Cell Separation And Isolation

Cell separation was first achieved in 1964 by S. H. Seal, who separated large tumor cells from the smaller blood cells using filtration. Two years later, Pohl and Hawk performed experiments on how cells respond differently to a nonuniform electric field based on the cell type. Such observations were the inception of cell separation methods, which allow isolating a single cell type from a heterogeneous sample.

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy becomes large enough to partially overcome the forces holding the molecules or ions of the solid in their fixed positions, and the solid begins the process of transitioning to the liquid state or melting. At this point, the temperature of the solid stops rising, despite the continual input of heat, and it remains constant until all of the solid is...

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Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and standard pressure, a piece of dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, appearing to gradually disappear without ever forming any liquid. Snow and ice sublimate at temperatures below the melting point of water, a slow process that may be accelerated by winds and the reduced atmospheric pressures at high altitudes. When solid iodine is warmed, the solid sublimes...

Phase Transitions

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance's state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the solid pack closely together, generally in a pattern. The particles vibrate about their fixed positions but do not move or squeeze past their neighbors. In liquids, although the particles are closely spaced, they are randomly arranged. The position of the particles are not fixed—that is, they are free to move past their neighbors to...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 31, 2026

Measuring Growth and Gene Expression Dynamics of Tumor-Targeted S. Typhimurium Bacteria

Measuring Growth and Gene Expression Dynamics of Tumor-Targeted S. Typhimurium Bacteria

Published on: July 6, 2013

Phase-Separation Engineered Nanomotors Enable Spleen-Tumor Dual Targeting to Reverse T-Cell Exhaustion.

Zhiyong Liu^1,2, Xueting Shen³, Qianglan Lu¹

¹Department of Gastric and Hernia Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.

|January 29, 2026

Summary

Researchers developed novel Janus nanomotors using cell membrane phase separation to combat CD8+ T-cell exhaustion in immunotherapy. This dual-output gear (DOG) therapy synergistically reverses T-cell exhaustion and disrupts tumor metabolism, significantly inhibiting tumor growth.

Keywords:

CRISPR/Cas9 T-cell exhaustion reversing microfluidics modular nanomotor phase separation

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Dual Bioluminescence Imaging of Tumor Progression and Angiogenesis

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Last Updated: Jan 31, 2026

Measuring Growth and Gene Expression Dynamics of Tumor-Targeted S. Typhimurium Bacteria

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Published on: July 6, 2013

Protocol for MicroRNA Transfer into Adult Bone Marrow-derived Hematopoietic Stem Cells to Enable Cell Engineering Combined with Magnetic Targeting

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Dual Bioluminescence Imaging of Tumor Progression and Angiogenesis

Dual Bioluminescence Imaging of Tumor Progression and Angiogenesis

Published on: August 1, 2019

Area of Science:

Biomaterials Science
Immunology
Nanotechnology

Background:

Prolonged antigen stimulation leads to CD8+ T-cell exhaustion, impairing immunotherapy effectiveness.
Current nanoparticle fabrication methods lack dynamic immunomodulation capabilities.

Purpose of the Study:

To develop a novel Janus nanomotor platform for dynamic immunomodulation.
To address CD8+ T-cell exhaustion and enhance immunotherapy efficacy.

Main Methods:

Constructed Janus nanomotors (PML@fmPt NMs) via cell membrane phase separation.
Engineered nanomotors with intrinsic asymmetry and enhanced mobility for dual chemotaxis.
Codelivered metformin and CRISPR/Cas9 for synergistic therapeutic effects.

Main Results:

Achieved selective targeting of T cells and tumor cells through bioinspired design.
Demonstrated synergistic reversal of T-cell exhaustion and disruption of tumor tryptophan metabolism (DOG therapy).
Preclinical studies showed improved CD8+ T-cell mitochondrial respiration and significant tumor growth inhibition.

Conclusions:

Established a blueprint for intelligent biomaterial-based nanomotors using phase-separation engineering.
Highlighted the potential of modular Janus configurations and natural membranes for next-generation nanomaterials.
Phase separation engineering offers a versatile principle for advanced delivery systems.