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Cranial and Spinal Meninges

Cranial and Spinal Meninges

The cranial and spinal meninges are complex protective structures surrounding the central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal cord. These meninges consist of the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater. They protect the CNS, provide structural support, and aid in circulating cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
Cranial Meninges
These meningeal layers cover the cranium. The dura mater is the outermost layer of cranial meninges. It is a thick and durable membrane of dense...

Measurement: Standard Units

Measurement: Standard Units

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Measurement: Derived Units

Measurement: Derived Units

The International System of Units or SI system, by international agreement, has fixed measurement units for seven fundamental properties: length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, amount of substance, and luminosity. These are called the SI base units.

Units of Measurement

Units of Measurement

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International System of Units

International System of Units

The International System of Units, known as the SI system, is a universally accepted measurement system recognized and used worldwide. The SI system is based on a set of three base units considered absolute, and their values do not change with location. These base units are meters, kilograms, and seconds.
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Motor Units

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A motor unit consists of two main components: a single efferent motor neuron (i.e., a neuron that carries impulses away from the central nervous system) and all of the muscle fibers it innervates. The motor neuron may innervate multiple muscle fibers, which are single cells, but only one motor neuron innervates a single muscle fiber.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 31, 2026

Intracranial Subarachnoidal Route of Infection for Investigating Roles of Streptococcus suis Biofilms in Meningitis in a Mouse Infection Model

Intracranial Subarachnoidal Route of Infection for Investigating Roles of Streptococcus suis Biofilms in Meningitis in a Mouse Infection Model

Published on: July 1, 2018

Group A Streptococcus Meningitis, United States, 1997-2022.

Paulina A Hawkins, Sopio Chochua, Namrata Prasad

Emerging Infectious Diseases

|January 30, 2026

Summary

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) can cause meningitis, a severe infection with a high fatality rate. Awareness is crucial as clindamycin resistance in GAS meningitis is increasing.

Keywords:

Streptococcus pyogenes United States bacteria bacterial infection group A Streptococcus meningitis/encephalitis streptococcal infection

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Last Updated: Jan 31, 2026

Intracranial Subarachnoidal Route of Infection for Investigating Roles of Streptococcus suis Biofilms in Meningitis in a Mouse Infection Model

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A Murine Model of Group B Streptococcus Vaginal Colonization

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Published on: November 16, 2016

Area of Science:

Infectious Diseases
Microbiology
Epidemiology

Background:

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a known pathogen but infrequently recognized as a cause of meningitis.
Invasive GAS infections can lead to severe outcomes, including meningitis.

Purpose of the Study:

To determine the incidence and case-fatality rates (CFRs) of Group A Streptococcus meningitis in the United States.
To analyze antimicrobial resistance patterns, specifically for clindamycin, in GAS meningitis isolates over time.

Main Methods:

Analysis of GAS meningitis cases reported by ten sites in the Active Bacterial Core Surveillance network (1997-2022).
Calculation of annual incidence and CFRs.
Whole-genome sequencing to determine antimicrobial resistance profiles.

Main Results:

Annual incidence of GAS meningitis ranged from 0.02 to 0.07 cases/100,000 persons, with the highest incidence in infants (<1 year).
GAS meningitis exhibited a higher CFR (19.4%) compared to other common meningitis pathogens.
Clindamycin resistance in GAS meningitis isolates significantly increased from 3.2% (1997-2002) to 17.7% (2018-2022).

Conclusions:

Group A Streptococcus meningitis is an uncommon but severe manifestation of invasive GAS disease.
Healthcare providers should maintain a high index of suspicion for GAS meningitis due to its significant CFR.
The rising clindamycin resistance in GAS meningitis necessitates careful consideration of treatment strategies.