Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Metabolic Reprogramming in Chronic Inflammatory Diseases: Molecular Insights and...

Chronic inflammatory diseases are driven by persistent immune activation and metabolic imbalance that disrupt tissue homeostasis. Mitochondrial dysfunction disrupts cellular bioenergetics and immune regulation, driving persistent inflammatory signaling. Mitochondrial dysfunction, characterized by excessive production of ROS, release of mitochondrial DNA, and defective mitophagy, amplifies inflammatory signaling and contributes to disease progression. Meanwhile, metabolic reprogramming in immune and stromal cells establishes distinct bioenergetic profiles. These profiles maintain either pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory phenotypes through key signaling regulators such as HIF-1α, AMPK, mTOR, and SIRT3. Crosstalk between mitochondrial and metabolic pathways determines whether inflammation persists or resolves. Recent advances have identified critical molecular regulators, including the NRF2-KEAP1 antioxidant system, the cGAS-STING innate immune pathway, and the PINK1-Parkin mitophagy pathway, as potential therapeutic targets. Pharmacologic modulation of metabolic checkpoints and restoration of mitochondrial homeostasis represent key strategies for re-establishing cellular homeostasis. Developing approaches, including NAD⁺ supplementation, mitochondrial transplantation, and gene-based interventions, also show significant therapeutic potential. This review provides a mechanistic synthesis of how mitochondrial dysfunction and metabolic reprogramming cooperate to maintain chronic inflammation and highlights molecular pathways that represent promising targets for precision therapeutics in inflammatory diseases.