Photoacoustic imaging at the interface of cellular theranostics

Cell-derived therapies represent a rapidly growing field for treating various diseases. Serving as "living" medicines, these therapies involve the use of live cells that can be engineered with added therapeutic benefits to treat various diseases. However, one of the greatest challenges in implementing these therapies clinically is that there is a lack of longitudinal feedback to provide real-time information on cell location, function, viability, and trafficking in vivo. Photoacoustic (PA) imaging is a well-suited modality for cell tracking applications. The high molecular contrast of optical imaging is combined with the spatial resolution and penetration depth of acoustics. Here, we explore recent advances in PA imaging for cell tracking, emphasizing cutting-edge strategies that integrate multifunctional nanoplatforms to enable combined therapy and diagnostics, termed "theranostics." We describe the principles of PA imaging, as well as considerations for selecting the ideal contrast agent to suit specific applications. Furthermore, we highlight recent applications in tracking cell-based therapies, including stem cell therapies, immune cell therapies, and cell-derived therapies, while also discussing pathogenic cell tracking strategies in the cancer space and imaging bacteria cells.