Epidemiological Link Between Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease: Evidence, Mechanisms, and...

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has emerged as a significant and independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD), yet its incorporation into routine cardiovascular prevention and care remains limited. This review synthesizes epidemiological evidence showing consistent associations between PTSD and increased incidence of hypertension, coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, and cardiovascular mortality across diverse populations, including veterans, civilians, women, and disaster-exposed cohorts. The review also highlights the bidirectional relationship between PTSD and CVD, since traumatic cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction and cardiac arrest can precipitate persistent PTSD symptoms that negatively influence prognosis and recovery. Multiple biological and behavioral mechanisms are described, including autonomic dysregulation, activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, systemic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, metabolic disturbances, and maladaptive health behaviors. Clinical implications include gaps in current screening practices, the need for trauma-informed approaches in cardiovascular care, the impact of PTSD on treatment adherence and cardiac rehabilitation, and the potential role of PTSD-targeted interventions in reducing cardiovascular risk. Key limitations in the existing literature are identified, such as heterogeneity in diagnostic criteria, residual confounding from comorbid psychiatric conditions, and the underrepresentation of women and non-veteran populations. The review concludes by outlining future research priorities, with emphasis on mechanistic studies, longitudinal cohorts, clinical intervention trials, and the integration of social determinants of health. A deeper understanding of the complex relationship between PTSD and CVD is essential for advancing both prevention and clinical management in trauma-exposed individuals.