Silver nanoparticles in water disinfection: a comprehensive overview on their mechanisms, benefits, and limitations

The classical methods of disinfection such as UV, ozonation, and chlorination have some limitations, including low efficiency of pathogen destruction, high energy requirements, and the creation of disinfection by-products (DBPs). The availability of clean drinking water is one of the great challenges still faced by the world. The discovery of silver nanoparticles, also known as AgNPs, has proven them to be effective antibacterial agents for the long-term disinfection of water. This paper presents the primary mechanisms by which AgNPs inactive pathogens, including membrane disruption, induction of oxidative stress, and disruption of DNA and protein synthesis. AgNPs facilitate rapid and effective microbial inactivation when incorporated into a variety of scaffold systems, including carbon-based materials, hydrogels, foams, and ceramics. particle size, shape, particle concentration, substrate material, water chemistry, flow conditions, and other relevant variables that influence AgNPs efficacy are examined in greater detail. Various important limitations are highlighted, for example, cost, long-term stability, nanoparticle leaching, and potential environmental risks. Finally, recommendations are offered regarding priorities for future research, with attention directed to hybrid disinfection platforms, scalable point-of use technologies, improved immobilization strategies, reduced silver release, and biocompatible designs. In conclusion, silver-based nanoparticles offer a viable path for the development of energy-efficient, safe, and sustainable water disinfection solutions that align with sustainability and global health goals.