Blue food proteins-derived immunomodulatory peptides: sources, preparation, identification techniques, mechanisms,...

Blue food proteins-derived immunomodulatory peptides (IMPs) possess distinctive physicochemical properties and exhibit immunoregulatory functions, including enhancement of host defense, immune modulation, and anti-inflammatory activity. Nevertheless, reviews addressing their marine sources, extraction, purification, and functional mechanisms remain scarce. This review systematically summarizes the biological origins, preparation technologies, and immunological pathways of IMPs, including nonspecific and specific immunity and key signaling cascades such as NF-κB and MAPK. In vivo and in vitro evidence of their immunomodulatory activity is critically evaluated. Despite promising potential, IMPs face challenges in gastrointestinal stability, long-term safety validation, and industrial scalability. Future studies should prioritize improving structural stability and targeted delivery via encapsulation and controlled-release systems, as well as conducting long-term immunotoxicological assessments under physiologically relevant conditions. Additionally, integrating synthetic biology, precision fermentation, and AI-driven peptide design may facilitate cost-effective and scalable production. A multidisciplinary approach will be essential to advance IMPs from functional bioactives to clinically relevant agents for immunonutrition and therapeutic applications.