New horizons of nanotechnology-enabled phage therapies for effective management of bacterial infections

Bacterial infections continue to persist as a major global healthcare challenge, exacerbated by the alarming rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) that renders conventional antibiotics increasingly ineffective. In response, bacteriophage therapy has re-emerged as a viable alternative to antibiotics, leveraging the natural ability of phages to target and lyse specific bacterial pathogens. However, phage therapy is subjected to diverse challenges such as phage stability, targeted delivery, and bacterial resistance limiting its clinical applications. Recent mechanistic advancements in nanotechnology present a groundbreaking solution by enabling precise nano-based engineering of phages with enhanced therapeutic properties. This review examines the integration of nanotechnology tools and products with phage therapy, highlighting innovative strategies such as nanomaterial-based encapsulation, functionalization, improve stability, precise delivery and inhibit toxicological exposure. Furthermore, nanotechnology facilitates controlled release, prolonged circulation, and synergistic combinations with dynamic phage therapies. The review also investigates perspectives related to the challenges such as standardization, scalability, immunogenicity, and regulatory barriers of phage therapy, encompassing the future emphasis on the development of biocompatible carriers. By overcoming these obstacles, nanotechnology-enabled phage therapy has the potential to improve the treatment of multidrug-resistant bacteria, offering a more targeted, adaptable, and sustainable approach to combating the growing threat of AMR.