Sporoplasm: The initial cell in microsporidia life cycle

Microsporidia are a class of obligate intracellular parasitic unicellular eukaryotes that infect almost all animals. Under appropriate environmental stimuli, microsporidia transport the sporoplasm into the host cell through the releasing polar tube (PT), thereby completing the infection process. The sporoplasm is the initial cell of infection and proliferation of microsporidia.

Recent studies on the sporoplasm have achieved significant advances. For example, cryo-electron microscopy (Cryo-EM) elucidated the sporoplasm formation process, while single-cell RNA sequencing characterized microsporidia gene expression across developmental stages. In this review, we summarize the structural characteristics of the sporoplasm and provide a detailed discussion on the gene expression features and functions during the sporoplasm stage. Additionally, we outline the interactions of sporoplasm during infection, as well as the in vitro cultivation of the sporoplasm of Nosema bombycis (N. bombycis), which lays the foundation for understanding the infection mechanism of microsporidia and the establishment of a complete genetic manipulation system.

We review and discuss recent research progress on the sporoplasm, particularly conducting in-depth comparative analyses of the biological characteristics of different microsporidia sporoplasm and gene expression patterns across various developmental stages. On this basis, we propose the main directions and research roadmap for future studies, including structural biology, host-parasite molecular interaction, and genetic engineering feasibility. These studies will contribute to elucidating the molecular mechanisms of microsporidia life cycle and pathogenesis.