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Challenging dual-coding theory: Picture superiority effects persist in aphantasia
Muhan Yan1, Brady R T Roberts2, Wilma A Bainbridge3
1Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
Neuropsychologia
|February 8, 2026
Summary
Individuals with aphantasia, who cannot visualize, still show a picture superiority effect (PSE) in memory. However, they recall symbols better than pictures, challenging dual-coding theory.
Area of Science:
- Cognitive Psychology
- Neuroscience
- Memory Studies
Background:
- Dual-coding theory posits that visual and verbal encoding enhances memory recall.
- The picture superiority effect (PSE) suggests pictures are recalled better than words due to dual encoding.
Purpose of the Study:
- To test dual-coding theory by examining recall in individuals with aphantasia.
- To investigate the role of mental imagery in the PSE.
Main Methods:
- Compared recall performance between aphantasics and typical imagers.
- Utilized four stimulus types: pictures, symbols, picture names, and symbol names.
Main Results:
- Aphantasic individuals demonstrated a significant picture superiority benefit.
- Aphantasics recalled symbols better than pictures, contrary to predictions.
- Typical imagers showed similar recall rates for pictures and symbols.
Conclusions:
- Findings challenge the core assumption of dual-coding theory regarding conscious access to visual codes.
- The study suggests alternative explanations for the PSE, such as distinctiveness.
- Revisions to dual-coding theory may be necessary to account for these results.
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