Translating 2D Nanomaterials into Neurotherapeutics: From Biomarker Sensing to Bioelectronic Interfaces

The mammalian nervous system comprises billions of neurons and quadrillions of synapses, forming an intricate communication network that integrates electrical, chemical, and mechanical signaling. Disruption of this finely coordinated architecture leads to a broad range of neurological and psychiatric disorders, many of which remain difficult to treat. Although emerging strategies such as cell transplantation, biomaterial scaffolds, electrical stimulation, and molecular therapies have demonstrated encouraging progress, their overall clinical impact is limited by challenges including low neuronal survival, inadequate axonal guidance, restricted remyelination, and poor long-term integration with host tissue. Additional barriers, such as immune rejection, insufficient spatiotemporal control, and difficulty in reconstructing functional neural circuits, further underscore the need for more adaptable and effective therapeutic technologies. This review systematically examines the physicochemical and biological properties of key two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials, along with their fabrication methods and mechanisms of interaction with neural and immune systems. Particular emphasis is placed on their potential to modulate immune responses, promote axonal regeneration, support remyelination, and enhance functional reconnection within neural circuits. The review also highlights opportunities for integrating 2D nanomaterials with bioelectronic interfaces and systems neuroscience tools to develop hybrid platforms capable of precise monitoring and modulation of neural activity. By outlining current challenges and emerging solutions, this review aims to advance the design of next-generation 2D nanomaterial-based neuroregenerative therapies and inform future efforts toward more effective, scalable, and personalized interventions for neurological disorders.