Do Plants Need to Be Sprayed? New Insights into VOC-Mediated Biostimulation by Wood Vinegar

Wood vinegar (WV), a by-product of biomass pyrolysis rich in organic acids and phenolic compounds, has gained increasing attention as a sustainable input for crop production, mainly through foliar application. However, its high content of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) suggests that WV may (also) interact with plants through the gaseous phase, a pathway that has so far been overlooked. This study tested the hypothesis that WV can modulate plant physiological performance, metabolic status, and nutrient accumulation not only via direct foliar contact but also through exposure to WV-derived VOCs. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) was used as a model crop and grown under controlled environmental conditions. Plants were subjected to weekly treatments consisting of either foliar spraying with a 0.2% (v/v) WV solution or exposure to VOCs released from the same solution in a sealed chamber, without direct contact between the liquid and plant tissues, and were compared with untreated controls. Notably, plants exposed exclusively to WV-derived VOCs showed responses similar to those observed following foliar application. Both treatments significantly increased fresh weight, the content of chlorophyll, total polyphenols and the accumulation of key macro- and micronutrients, including Ca, K, P, S, and Zn. For both treatments, the efficiency of photosystem II remained stable, indicating the absence of photochemical stress, while stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, intercellular CO₂ concentration, and net photosynthetic rate were markedly reduced, suggesting a regulated stomatal response. Physiological, biochemical, and mineral parameters were assessed using non-destructive optical techniques, gas exchange measurements, spectrophotometric assays, and X-ray fluorescence analysis. These findings indicate that exposure to the volatile fraction released from WV under the exposure conditions adopted in this study can elicit biostimulant-like responses comparable to those observed after foliar application.