Conducting Polymers for Electrochemical Sensing: From Materials and Metrology to Intelligent and Sustainable...

Conducting polymers (CPs) have become cornerstone materials in electrochemical sensors and biosensors due to their mixed ionic-electronic conduction, mechanical softness, and intrinsic biointerface compatibility. This review provides a comprehensive and critical overview of the field, tracing the evolution of CP-based devices from classical poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS), polyaniline (PANI), and polypyrrole (PPy) electrodes to emerging nanostructured, hybrid, wearable, and transient systems. We discuss fundamental charge-transport mechanisms, doping strategies, structure-property relationships, and the role of morphology and biofunctionalization in dictating sensitivity, selectivity, and stability. Particular emphasis is placed on reliability challenges-including drift, dopant leaching, environmental degradation, and biofouling-and on the current lack of standardized metrology, which hampers cross-study comparability. We propose a framework for rigorous calibration, reference electrode design, and data reporting, enabling quantitative benchmarking across materials and architectures. To support meaningful cross-platform comparison, representative performance envelopes-including conductivity, limit of detection, sensitivity, selectivity strategies, and operational stability-are critically benchmarked across major CP families and sensing modalities. Finally, we explore future directions such as organic mixed ionic-electronic conductors, biohybrid and living polymer interfaces, Artificial Intelligence-driven modeling, and sustainable transient electronics.