Balancing Efficiency, Stability, Scalability, and Sustainability in Hybrid Perovskite Solar Cells: A Comprehensive...

Hybrid perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have rapidly advanced, achieving power conversion efficiencies above 27%, yet their widespread commercialization remains constrained by intrinsic and extrinsic stability issues. Recent developments in device engineering, module integration, and material composition tuning have improved through defect passivation, charge transport, moisture resistance, and enhanced durability. Apart from these, scalable fabrication techniques such as blade coating, spray coating, inkjet printing, chemical vapor deposition, and screen printing are discussed in this review, along with how these fabrication techniques impact efficiency, stability, scalability, and sustainability. Efficiency, stability, scalability, and sustainability are the four key pillars driving the promising development of PSCs. This review explains each key pillar in detail and also highlights how crucial it is to understand the physics behind each process and material interaction to achieve balanced advancement across these dimensions. It explains how these factors work together to determine the practical application of stable, high-performance, and economically feasible perovskite solar cells. This review integrates concepts from materials chemistry, device physics, and process optimization.