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Ophthalmic drug delivery faces major limitations due to poor absorption across the corneal membrane. This process is primarily driven by diffusion and is influenced by two main factors: the physicochemical properties of the drug and tear drainage. Most ophthalmic drugs, such as pilocarpine, epinephrine, atropine, and local anesthetics, are weak bases. They are typically formulated at an acidic pH to enhance chemical stability. However, this leads to high ionization, reducing their ability to...
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In open-angle glaucoma, the iridocorneal angle remains open, but the trabecular meshwork becomes stiff, slowing down the outflow of aqueous humor. This causes a buildup of aqueous humor in the anterior chamber, leading to a sudden increase in intraocular pressure. The treatment for open-angle glaucoma focuses on reducing the elevated intraocular pressure by either decreasing the secretion of aqueous humor or increasing its outflow.
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Optical perception, or vision, is an extraordinary sense dependent on converting light signals received via the ocular organs. These organs, known as eyes, are securely positioned within the bony cavities of the skull, called orbits. The orbits serve a dual purpose: a protective shield for the ocular globes and a stable attachment point for the soft ocular tissues. The eye's external protective mechanisms include the eyelids, which are edged with lashes that act as a barrier against foreign...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 17, 2026

Clinical Application of Intense Pulsed Light Therapy and Radio Frequency for Treatment of Ocular Surface Diseases
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Developments in the therapeutic landscape for dry eye.

Costanza Rossi1, Massimiliano Borselli2, Andrea Lucisano2

  • 1Eye Clinic, Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.

Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy
|February 16, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Dry eye disease (DED) treatments are evolving beyond artificial tears to target specific causes like inflammation. Personalized, mechanism-based therapies, including new agents and devices, offer improved management for DED patients.

Keywords:
AcoltremonDry eye diseaseEysuvisMiebomeibomian gland dysfunctionnew treatments

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Area of Science:

  • Ophthalmology
  • Dry Eye Disease Research
  • Ocular Surface Disease

Background:

  • Dry eye disease (DED) is a chronic condition impacting vision and quality of life.
  • Current first-line therapy involves artificial tear substitutes.
  • New insights into DED pathogenesis enable targeted treatment development.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review established and emerging therapies for dry eye disease.
  • To evaluate conventional treatments and novel approaches.
  • To discuss the shift towards personalized, mechanism-based DED management.

Main Methods:

  • Comprehensive literature review of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases.
  • Evaluation of various DED treatment categories.
  • Analysis of established and investigational therapeutic options.

Main Results:

  • Tear substitutes are conventional, but mechanism-based treatments are emerging.
  • Therapies include immune modulators, blood-derived products, and tear conservation.
  • Device-based interventions and regenerative approaches are also discussed.

Conclusions:

  • Personalized management addressing inflammation, tear instability, and dysfunction is key.
  • Integrating targeted therapies, devices, and diagnostics can improve DED care.
  • Further research is needed for optimal treatment selection and sequencing.