Formation of advanced glycation end-products in powdered infant formula: A systematic investigation of macronutrient...

The formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) in infant formula is a critical safety issue governed by complex macronutrient interactions. This study systematically elucidated this reaction network to identify key control points. A competitive network was revealed where lipids exhibited a context-dependent dual functionality, acting as pro-oxidative promoters in low-protein, casein-dominant systems but as inhibitors in high-protein systems. Increasing the whey protein proportion was found to accelerate reaction kinetics, increasing intermediate flux and CML levels. Carbohydrate type selectively directed reaction pathways. The effect of vegetable oil was governed by a complex interplay between its fatty acid composition and its profile of minor antioxidant components. Crucially, processing technology was the dominant control factor; dry-blending substantially reduced the accumulation of AGEs compared to wet-blending by limiting reactant contact. These findings establish a mechanistic framework for designing safer infant formulas by strategically manipulating the complex, non-linear interplay between composition and processing.