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Related Concept Videos

Sexually Transmitted Infections01:26

Sexually Transmitted Infections

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Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are diseases transmitted primarily through unsafe sexual interactions. Bacteria, viruses, or parasites cause them and can result in severe health complications if untreated.ChlamydiaThe bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis is responsible for the disease Chlamydia, the most common STI in the United States. This peculiar pathogen requires human cells to reproduce, residing intracellularly. The initial infection often goes unnoticed because it typically does not...
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The hosts' susceptibility to infection depends on several factors. The integrity of the skin and mucous membranes helps protect the body against microbial attacks. When the skin is altered, the chance of infection, limb loss, and even death increases.
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Spermatogenesis01:41

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Spermatogenesis is the process by which haploid sperm cells are produced in the male testes. It starts with stem cells located close to the outer rim of seminiferous tubules. These spermatogonial stem cells divide asymmetrically to give rise to additional stem cells (meaning that these structures “self-renew”), as well as sperm progenitors, called spermatocytes. Importantly, this method of asymmetric mitotic division maintains a population of spermatogonial stem cells in the male...
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The Ratio of X Chromosome to Autosomes02:45

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In most organisms, sex is determined by the ratio of X and Y chromosomes. However, in some organisms, such as Drosophila and C.elegans, sex is determined by the ratio of the number of X chromosomes to the number of sets of autosomes. The Y chromosome in Drosophila is active but does not determine sex. It contains genes responsible for the production of sperms in adult flies.  
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The Y Chromosome Determines Maleness02:19

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The Y chromosome is a sex chromosome found in several vertebrates and mammals, including humans. In addition to 22 pairs of autosomes, the human males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. In these organisms, the presence or absence of the Y chromosome determines the development of male traits.
Evolution
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X-linked Traits

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In most mammalian species, females have two X sex chromosomes and males have an X and Y. As a result, mutations on the X chromosome in females may be masked by the presence of a normal allele on the second X. In contrast, a mutation on the X chromosome in males more often causes observable biological defects, as there is no normal X to compensate. Trait variations arising from mutations on the X chromosome are called “X-linked”.
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Collection, Isolation, and Flow Cytometric Analysis of Human Endocervical Samples
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Sex-Specific Factors Influencing HIV Infection.

Maria Pujantell1, Marcus Altfeld1,2

  • 1Department Virus Immunology, Leibniz Institute of Virology (LIV), Hamburg, Germany.

Immunological Reviews
|February 20, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Sex-specific immune responses, influenced by X/Y chromosomes and hormones, significantly impact HIV-1 infection outcomes. Understanding these differences is crucial for developing effective HIV-1 prevention and treatment strategies.

Keywords:
HIV‐1IFN pathwayRNA sensing pathwayTNF pathwayX‐chromosomeescape from XCIimmunitysex differences

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Virology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection presents a significant global health challenge.
  • Immune responses are critical for controlling viral infections, but patterns can differ between sexes.
  • X/Y-chromosome genes and sex steroid hormones are known to influence immune cell function and antiviral responses.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the impact of X- and Y-chromosome-encoded genes on antiviral immunity against HIV-1.
  • To examine the role of sex steroid hormones in modulating HIV-1-specific immune responses.
  • To understand the consequences of sex-specific immune differences on HIV-1 disease progression and outcomes.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review focusing on studies investigating sex differences in HIV-1 immunity.
  • Analysis of research on X/Y-chromosome gene expression in immune cells relevant to HIV-1.
  • Examination of studies detailing the effects of sex hormones on antiviral pathways in HIV-1 infection.

Main Results:

  • X/Y-chromosome genes and sex hormones differentially modulate immune cell function and gene expression.
  • Distinct patterns of antiviral immune responses are observed between sexes, affecting HIV-1 control.
  • These sex-specific immune variations have significant implications for HIV-1 pathogenesis and disease progression.

Conclusions:

  • Sex-specific differences in immune responses, driven by genetic and hormonal factors, are critical in HIV-1 infection.
  • A deeper understanding of these sex differences is essential for advancing HIV-1 prevention, treatment, and cure strategies.
  • Targeting sex-specific immune pathways may offer novel therapeutic avenues for people living with HIV-1.