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Updated: Feb 21, 2026

Collection, Isolation, and Flow Cytometric Analysis of Human Endocervical Samples
Published on: July 6, 2014
Sex-Specific Factors Influencing HIV Infection
Maria Pujantell1, Marcus Altfeld1,2
1Department Virus Immunology, Leibniz Institute of Virology (LIV), Hamburg, Germany.
Abstract:
Immune responses are key in controlling viral infections such as HIV-1, which remains a global challenge to public health. X/Y-chromosome-encoded genes and sex steroid hormones can modulate immune cells and drive distinct patterns of gene and protein expression involved in antiviral function, impacting sex-dependent immune responses and altering the balance of specific immune pathways. These sex-specific differences in antiviral immune responses have significant consequences for the outcome of HIV-1 infection. A better understanding of sex differences in HIV-1-specific antiviral immunity is required to implement and develop new strategies for prevention, treatment and ultimately a functional cure against HIV-1. Here we review the impact of X- and Y-encoded genes and the role of sex steroid hormones on modulating antiviral immune responses against HIV-1 and the consequences for disease manifestations in people living with HIV-1.
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