Apoptotic extracellular vesicles: unveiling mechanisms, diverse functions, and biomedical implications

Apoptotic extracellular vesicles (ApoEVs), once dismissed as inert "cellular debris," are now recognized as dynamic membrane-bound vesicles actively released during apoptosis, functioning as essential signaling platforms that coordinate tissue homeostasis and disease progression. Research reveals that through unique molecular signatures and surface properties, ApoEVs drive apoptotic corpse clearance, modulate immune responses, and mediate intercellular crosstalk, thereby exerting multifaceted influences on tissue repair and disease pathogenesis. This review systematically outlines the biogenesis, molecular regulators, and key characteristics of ApoEVs. We focus on their pivotal roles in both physiological homeostasis and disease states, highlighting their substantial translational potential for treating diverse conditions, including immune disorders, osteoporosis, skin injury, and cancer. Finally, we provide a forward-looking perspective on key challenges and translational opportunities, aiming to bridge fundamental insights into ApoEV biology with their clinical application in disease therapy.