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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 5, 2026

Irrelevant Stimuli and Action Control: Analyzing the Influence of Ignored Stimuli via the Distractor-Response Binding Paradigm
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Method matters: Diverging patterns in online measures of temporal binding.

Crystal A Silver1, Benjamin W Tatler2, Ramakrishna Chakravarthi2

  • 1Department of Sociological and Psychological Sciences, Faculty of Social and Applied Sciences, Abertay University Dundee, Dundee DD1 1HG, UK; School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3FX, UK.

Consciousness and Cognition
|February 20, 2026
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Summary

Online temporal binding (TB) studies using estimation or replication methods show unreliable results. Methodological and contextual factors significantly influence TB effects, questioning their robustness in digital settings.

Keywords:
Online testingSense of AgencyTemporal BindingTime perception

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Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Psychology
  • Perception Science
  • Human-Computer Interaction

Background:

  • Temporal Binding (TB) describes the subjective shortening of time between an action and its consequence.
  • Existing research on TB is extensive, but its reliability in online settings remains uncertain due to limited technical control.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate if estimation and replication methods yield comparable TB effects in online environments.
  • To determine if these methods are differentially sensitive to social contextual framing.

Main Methods:

  • Experiment 1: Participants used estimation or replication to judge action-effect intervals under action-reaction and observation conditions.
  • Experiment 2: A social manipulation was introduced, suggesting prior participant-generated outcomes, with interval judgments using both methods.

Main Results:

  • The estimation and replication methods produced divergent and sometimes opposing TB effect patterns.
  • Method-specific patterns persisted even with the introduction of a social manipulation, varying across different action-effect intervals.

Conclusions:

  • Findings raise concerns about the reliability of TB effects measured in online settings.
  • The choice of interval judgment method and specific action-effect intervals significantly impact observed TB effects.
  • Results from online TB studies using estimation or replication should be interpreted with caution.