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Updated: Feb 23, 2026

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Toward 4D printed functional soft tissues.

Amal Shabazz1, Julia Fitlin1, Henry Orozco-Contreras1

  • 1Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA; Center for Engineering Complex Tissues, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.

Acta Biomaterialia
|February 21, 2026
PubMed
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4D printing enhances soft tissue engineering by creating dynamic, functional constructs that mimic native tissue. This review explores advancements in 4D printed soft tissues, addressing challenges for future regenerative medicine applications.

Area of Science:

  • Biomaterials Science
  • Regenerative Medicine
  • Tissue Engineering

Background:

  • Soft tissue defect repair is a significant clinical challenge, particularly for active individuals, trauma patients, and those with age-related diseases.
  • Traditional 3D printing creates static tissue constructs, but long-term solutions require dynamic, functional mimics of native human tissues.
  • 4D printing, which incorporates time-dependent actuation, offers a promising strategy for engineering functional soft tissue constructs.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review technological advancements in 4D printing for soft tissue engineering.
  • To explore mechanisms of 4D material actuation and their application in responsive tissue mimics.
  • To discuss progress, limitations, and future challenges in engineering functional 4D printed soft tissues across various types (skin, cardiovascular, nerve, muscle, connective).
Keywords:
3D printing4D printingBiofabricationRegenerative medicineTissue engineering

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Main Methods:

  • Review of technological advancements in additive manufacturing and 4D printing for soft tissue constructs.
  • Analysis of mechanisms for 4D material actuation in response to external stimuli.
  • Classification and discussion of progress and limitations in engineering functional soft tissues by type.

Main Results:

  • 4D printing enables the creation of complex soft tissue constructs with time-dependent functions by integrating material actuation with additive manufacturing.
  • Significant progress has been made in engineering functional skin, cardiovascular, nerve, skeletal muscle, and connective tissues using 4D printing strategies.
  • Challenges remain in balancing biological function with programmable material properties for next-generation 4D printed soft tissues.

Conclusions:

  • 4D printing represents a significant advancement over 3D printing for soft tissue engineering, enabling the development of dynamic and functional tissue mimics.
  • Further research is needed to overcome fabrication challenges and fully realize the potential of 4D printed soft tissues for clinical applications.
  • This review highlights key areas for future development in creating sophisticated, responsive soft tissue constructs for regenerative medicine.