Inside the parrot beak-and-tongue apparatus: Unlocking a model system for dexterity research

Dexterity, the flexible and precise control of objects, requires the integration of cognitive abilities, motor coordination, and anatomical specializations. Due to the evolutionary significance of the opposable thumb, dexterity research has traditionally focused on primate species. However, based on a review of current knowledge in parrot morphology, cognition, and neurobiology, we propose that parrots represent a highly promising model system for dexterity research. We highlight lineage-specific morphological novelties that turn the parrot beak-and-tongue apparatus into a multifunctional tool, draw comparisons between the parrot tongue and the primate thumb, and showcase existing studies on Goffin's cockatoos that reveal advanced tool-related problem-solving abilities. Characterized by fine motor control, pronounced interindividual variability, goal-directed behavior, flexibility, and the optimization of speed through learning, the Goffin's cockatoo model embodies the core components of dexterity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).