Temporal (2012-2021), Age, and Sex Trends in Exposure to Bisphenols, Antimicrobials, and Parabens in the Australian General Population

Temporal as well as age- and sex-related trends in human exposure to bisphenols, triclosan (TCS), triclocarban (TCC), and parabens were assessed using pooled urine samples (n = 150), representing approximately 14,000 individuals from the general Australian population, collected between 2012-13 and 2020-21. The arithmetic mean concentration of bisphenol A (BPA) decreased approximately by 50% from 2012-13 to 2020-21, while the bisphenol S (BPS) concentration doubled, indicating a gradual substitution of BPA with BPS in production and usage patterns. Both antimicrobial agents─TCS and TCC─exhibited decreasing trends from 2012-13 to 2020-21. In contrast, concentrations of the predominant parabens─methylparaben, ethylparaben, and propylparaben (PrP)─remained relatively stable over the past decade, reflecting their continued uses. TCS and TCC concentrations were generally higher in adults, whereas paraben concentrations were consistently higher in children. For BPA and BPS, all 2020-21 sample pools exceeded health-based reference values, indicating potential health concerns for the Australian population on average. Estimated daily intakes for PrP in samples of 0-15-year-old children frequently surpassed the reference value, suggesting a persistent exposure risk that has continued over the past decade. Overall, urinary concentrations of the target biomarkers in the Australian population were among the highest reported globally.