Light-responsive nanotherapeutic carbon dots: a next generation tool for cancer phototherapy

Carbon dots (CDs) have emerged as promising nanomaterials in cancer phototherapy due to their unique optical properties, biocompatibility, and tunability. This review comprehensively examines the role of CDs in photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), highlighting their mechanisms of action, including the induction of apoptosis, necrosis, and necroptosis in cancer cells. Key factors influencing the efficacy of cancer phototherapy-such as the tumor microenvironment (TME), nanoparticle stability, and light parameters-are thoroughly analyzed. Advancements in surface modifications, targeted, drug delivery and multifunctional applications, including their integration with chemotherapy and immunotherapy, further expand the clinical potential of CDs. While preclinical studies have demonstrated the efficacy of CDs in selectively targeting cancer cells and inducing therapeutic effects, challenges related to biosafety and regulatory approval hinder clinical translation. By addressing existing challenges and leveraging interdisciplinary innovations, CDs hold great promise for personalized and less invasive cancer treatments. Their future success in clinical application will depend on overcoming biological barriers and optimizing the safety profile to facilitate their seamless integration into oncology.