Nanoparticles based interventions for metal(loid) stress mitigation in plants

Metal(loid) stress is one of the key constraints limiting plant growth and productivity, thus threatening agricultural yields and ecosystem health. This review elaborates on the mechanisms through which metal(loid) stress acts on plants, with a special focus on disturbances to key physiological and biochemical aspects. Drawing on global research findings, the review then systematically discusses the interactions between various metal(loid)s and plant components, clarifying the specifity of stress responses across different plant-metal(loid) systems. A central focus of this review is the application of nanoparticles (NPs) as a mitigation strategy to enhance plant growth and improve tolerance to metal(loid) stress. Specifically, it summarizes the multifaceted roles of NPs in this context: promoting plant growth and development, inducing the activity of antioxidant enzymes, and mitigating oxidative stress. This review confirms that metal(loid) stress can strongly inhibit plant growth and physiological functions, but such adverse effects can be significantly alleviated by NPs-based interventions ultimately facilitating the cultivation of more robust and healthy plants. These findings highlight the potential of NPs-mediated strategies as a practical and effective approach to counteract metal(loid) toxicity in plants, providing valuable insights for the development of sustainable agricultural system.