Heart Failure in the Molecular Era: Redefining Our Understanding of Disease Mechanisms and Perspectives

Heart failure (HF) is a global health challenge characterized by the heart's inability to satisfy metabolic demands, driven by renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) overactivation, a neurohormonal imbalance, and emerging mechanisms like the gut-heart axis and mitochondrial dysfunction. Affecting over 6 million adults in the US alone, HF incurs a 5-year mortality rate of 50% and escalating costs projected to double by 2030. This review examines HF's molecular paradigms, integrating established pathways with advances in omics, stem cell therapy, genetic modification, and personalized medicine. The RAAS blockade remains central, yet its efficacy is limited in HF with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). Stem cell therapies (mesenchymal and induced pluripotent stem cells) show regenerative potential but face poor retention (<10% survival at 30 days). CRISPR/Cas9 offers precision, though off-target effects persist. The gut microbiome, via trimethylamine N-oxide, exacerbates inflammation, while omics technologies promise biomarkers for tailored treatments. Challenges include translating these innovations into practice, particularly for HFpEF. Future directions involve novel HFpEF therapies, enhanced stem cell delivery, precise genetic tools, and microbiome interventions, supported with artificial intelligence. By 2030, these advances could shift HF management toward regeneration, contingent on overcoming translational barriers through global collaboration.