Camphor's Therapeutic Uses and Potential Hazards: An In-Depth Review of Its Medicinal Applications

Natural products have long been integral to traditional medicine, offering diverse therapeutic benefits. Increasing concerns about the side effects of synthetic drugs have heightened interest in plant-derived compounds. The camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl) and its derivatives, such as camphor oil, have been valued for centuries. Historically, C. camphora was used as a fumigant during the Black Death, a prized ingredient in perfumes, and a key component in embalming fluids. Today, camphor extracted from C. camphora is widely used as a fragrance in cosmetics, a flavoring agent in food, an ingredient in household cleaners, and a topical remedy for minor muscle pain. Camphor is primarily obtained through steam distillation of the wood but can also be synthetically produced from turpentine. Camphor exhibits a broad spectrum of biological activities, including insecticidal, antimicrobial, antiviral, anticoccidial, antinociceptive, anticancer, and antitussive effects, and has historically been employed to alleviate inflammation, congestion, pain, and irritation. This review integrates recently published research (up to 2025) on the biological activities and therapeutic applications of camphor that were not comprehensively addressed in earlier reviews. Furthermore, a mechanistic perspective is provided on camphor's pharmacological effects, including its antibacterial, antimicrobial, antiviral, and anticancer actions, highlighting the chemical basis underlying these activities. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the history, applications, and biological properties of camphor, emphasizing its potential in preventing and treating serious diseases such as cancer and diabetes. In addition, sustainability and translational relevance are emphasized, demonstrating how camphor exemplifies the integration of traditional knowledge with contemporary medicinal research. Overall, this review offers new insights into the therapeutic potential of camphor, underscoring its promising role in addressing major medical challenges while supporting the growing importance of plant-based compounds in modern healthcare due to their effectiveness, safety, and sustainability.