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Related Concept Videos

Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems01:18

Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems

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Transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS) enable the controlled release of drugs across the skin into systemic circulation. They are particularly advantageous for drugs with short half-lives or narrow therapeutic indices, as they maintain consistent plasma concentrations and reduce the risk of subtherapeutic or toxic levels.TDDS are categorized into monolithic, reservoir, and mixed systems. Monolithic systems embed the drug in a polymer matrix, where diffusion governs release. Reservoir systems...
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In Vitro Drug Dissolution: Compendial Testing Models II01:09

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Various dissolution methods are utilized to assess a drug’s dissolution rate, including the flow-through cell, paddle-over-disk, cylinder, and reciprocating disk methods.The flow-through cell apparatus (USP (United States Pharmacopeia) method 4) comprises a reservoir for the dissolution medium and a pump that propels the medium through the cell containing the test sample. This method is crucial for assessing modified-release dosage forms with minimally soluble active ingredients,...
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In Vitro Drug Dissolution: Alternative Methods01:17

In Vitro Drug Dissolution: Alternative Methods

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Alternative drug dissolution methods include the rotating bottle, intrinsic dissolution test, peristalsis, and the Franz diffusion cell method. The rotating bottle method involves meticulously rotating tightly capped controlled-release beads in a temperature-controlled bath. Periodic decanting of samples allows for residue assay, followed by refilling with fresh medium and testing at various pH levels to emulate the gastrointestinal tract conditions.In contrast, the intrinsic dissolution test...
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Bioavailability Enhancement: Drug Permeability Enhancement01:27

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Body:After oral administration, poor permeability often limits the rate at which drugs are absorbed through the intestinal epithelium. Enhancing drug permeability is crucial for effective therapy, and several strategies have been developed to overcome this challenge.One effective strategy involves the use of lipid-based formulations. These formulations enhance dissolution and solubility, targeting physiological mechanisms to increase drug absorption. This includes stimulating bile salt...
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Dissolution, the process by which drug particles dissolve in a solvent, is explained by the diffusion layer model, a theoretical framework that simulates the absorption of oral drugs and allows us to analyze experimental data.
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One-Compartment Open Model for Extravascular Administration: Zero-Order Absorption Model01:12

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Extravascular administration, such as oral or intramuscular routes, is a non-invasive drug delivery method, often preferred for ease and patient compliance. A key factor here is absorption, which dictates how quickly and effectively the drug enters the bloodstream from the administration site. Absorption follows either zero-order or first-order kinetics.
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Updated: Feb 28, 2026

Visualizing and Quantifying Pharmaceutical Compounds within Skin using Coherent Raman Scattering Imaging
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Modelling Transdermal Permeation of Volatiles from Complex Product Formulations.

Zhihao Zhong1,2, Guoping Lian1, Tao Chen1

  • 1Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK.

Pharmaceutics
|February 27, 2026
PubMed
Summary

A new model couples evaporation and transdermal permeation for volatile compounds. Kinetic theory estimates often overestimate evaporation rates, requiring calibration for accurate predictions in topical formulations.

Keywords:
diffusionevaporationpermeationstratum corneumtransdermal delivery

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Area of Science:

  • Pharmacokinetics and Drug Delivery
  • Chemical Engineering
  • Physical Chemistry

Background:

  • Evaporation of volatile ingredients significantly impacts topical formulation bioavailability.
  • Existing models often oversimplify or ignore coupled evaporation-permeation dynamics.
  • Accurate modeling requires understanding the interplay between volatile loss and skin penetration.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop a mechanistic framework coupling Fickian gas-phase evaporation and transdermal permeation.
  • To integrate volatile activity computation (UNIFAC) and gas-phase diffusivity (FSG) into a predictive model.
  • To validate the model using in vitro permeation testing (IVPT) data for volatile solutes.

Main Methods:

  • Developed a hybrid MATLAB-Python framework for coupled evaporation-permeation modeling.
  • Utilized UNIFAC for on-the-fly volatile activity calculation.
  • Employed the Fuller-Schettler-Giddings (FSG) equation for gas-phase diffusivity estimation.
  • Validated against IVPT data for 4-Tolunitrile and Nitrobenzene.

Main Results:

  • Optimized evaporation coefficients were ~1/10 of initial FSG estimates for both 4-Tolunitrile and Nitrobenzene.
  • The model accurately predicted 24-hour accumulation amounts in receptor fluid.
  • Calibrated evaporation coefficient was the most critical parameter, with minor improvements from internal skin parameters.
  • FSG-based kinetic theory provided a reasonable, albeit overestimated, starting point for evaporation rates.

Conclusions:

  • The coupled evaporation-permeation model successfully reproduces in vitro transdermal permeation kinetics for volatile solutes.
  • Calibrating the effective evaporation coefficient is crucial for accurate predictions.
  • Kinetic theory (FSG) overestimates evaporation rates under specific conditions; UNIFAC integration enhances model applicability.
  • The framework is extensible to complex, multicomponent topical formulations.