The Immunomodulatory Roles of Extracellular Vesicles in the Pathogenesis of Virus-Related Cancers

Since their discovery in the 1980s, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have garnered immense interest. These vesicles facilitate cell-to-cell communication and transfer physiologically active molecules such as proteins, lipids, and RNAs to target cells. Oncogenic viruses encode genes that enable viral replication and allow host cells to produce viral proteins and complexes. These viral components represent potential candidates for developing antiviral therapies or vaccines. Exosomes, a type of EV, can enhance immune responses by delivering immunostimulatory molecules and inhibiting viral replication. However, oncoviruses can also exploit the diverse immunoregulatory functions of exosomes to promote disease progression. This review focuses on the dual role of EVs produced during viral infections, examining how they can either enhance or suppress host immunity. We provide an overview of the function of exosomes in oncogenic virus infections, with a particular emphasis on their immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory potential. We also highlight challenges in harnessing these vesicles for advanced cancer theranostics and preventive strategies.