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Related Concept Videos

Atomic Orbitals02:44

Atomic Orbitals

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An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution function indicates the total probability of finding an electron within the thin shell at a distance r from the nucleus. The atomic orbitals have distinct shapes which are determined by l, the angular momentum quantum number. The orbitals are often drawn with a boundary surface, enclosing densest regions of the cloud.
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In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are also observed. The attractive and repulsive forces are dependent on the distance between the particles, as well as the sign and magnitude of the charges on the individual particles. When the charges on the particles are opposite, they attract each other. If both particles have the same charge, they repel each other.
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Molecular Orbital Energy Diagrams
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Near absolute zero temperatures, in the presence of a magnetic field, the majority of nuclei prefer the lower energy spin-up state to the higher energy spin-down state. As temperatures increase, the energy from thermal collisions distributes the spins more equally between the two states. The Boltzmann distribution equation gives the ratio of the number of spins predicted in the spin −½ (N−) and spin +½ (N+) states.
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The Fermi-Dirac function is represented by an S-shaped curve indicating the probability of an energy state being occupied by an electron at a given temperature. The Fermi level is the energy level at which there is a fifty percent chance of finding an electron, and it is positioned between the lower-energy valence band and the higher-energy conduction band.
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Updated: May 7, 2026

Dependence of Laser-induced Breakdown Spectroscopy Results on Pulse Energies and Timing Parameters Using Soil Simulants
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Threshold density for electron self-localization in gaseous H2.

A F Borghesani1,2, G Carugno2, A G Khrapak3

  • 1Department of Physics and Astronomy, Università degli Studi, Padova, Italy.

The Journal of Chemical Physics
|March 3, 2026
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Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Electrons in dense hydrogen gas may self-localize in bubbles, similar to helium. This study numerically confirms electron self-localization is likely and predicts coexistence densities for quasi-free electrons and bubbles.

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Area of Science:

  • Condensed matter physics
  • Atomic and molecular physics
  • Quantum fluid dynamics

Background:

  • Recent studies show multiple scattering affects electron drift mobility in dense gases like helium and neon.
  • Similar electron-atom/molecule scattering cross sections suggest potential for electron self-localization in hydrogen.
  • Limited experimental data hints at the possibility of electron self-localization in hydrogen gas.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the likelihood of electron self-localization in dense, cold hydrogen gas.
  • To numerically predict electron behavior using the optimum fluctuation model.
  • To determine the density at which quasi-free electrons and electron bubbles coexist.

Main Methods:

  • Numerical simulation using the optimum fluctuation model.
  • Analysis of electron transport properties in dense hydrogen gas.
  • Comparison of model predictions with experimental inferences.

Main Results:

  • Electron self-localization is identified as a highly probable phenomenon in dense hydrogen.
  • The optimum fluctuation model accurately predicts the density for equal proportions of quasi-free electrons and electron bubbles.
  • Findings support the analogy between electron behavior in hydrogen and noble gases.

Conclusions:

  • Electron self-localization is a significant process in dense hydrogen gas.
  • The optimum fluctuation model provides a reliable framework for understanding electron behavior in such systems.
  • This research bridges theoretical predictions with experimental observations in electron transport phenomena.