Digital and virtual interventions for migraine: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials

BackgroundMigraine is a heterogeneous disorder marked by recurrent attacks and highly variable treatment outcomes, and it continues to impose a substantial personal and societal burden worldwide, underscoring the need for innovative and accessible therapeutic approaches. Although pharmacological options have expanded in recent years, many patients still experience incomplete response or limited access to specialist care. In this context, digital and virtual technologies-including mobile health applications, remote electrical neuromodulation (REN), virtual reality (VR), biofeedback, and internet-based behavioral therapy-have emerged as promising non-pharmacological tools to enhance self-management and improve clinical outcomes.MethodsWe conducted a systematic review of randomized and quasi-randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating digital or virtual interventions for migraine prevention or acute treatment. Searches were performed in MEDLINE and Embase (via PubMed and Ovid^®) from database inception to September 4, 2025, following PRISMA guidelines (PROSPERO CRD420251078125). Eligible studies included adults with migraine diagnosed according to the International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD). Data were extracted on intervention type, outcomes, adherence, and adverse events. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane RoB 2 tool.ResultsTwelve studies met inclusion criteria, mean age across studies ranged from 35 to 47 years and interventions included digital behavioral therapy (42%), REN (17%), VR (17%), biofeedback (17%), and telemedicine (8%). REN and VR-based interventions demonstrated significant reductions in pain intensity and acute medication use compared with controls (p < 0.01), while sEMG-digital biofeedback was associated with significant improvements in migraine-related disability (p = 0.03) and quality of life (p = 0.003). Behavioral and app-based interventions showed high feasibility but modest effects on headache frequency. No serious adverse events were reported. Risk of bias was judged to be low in only one study, with some concerns identified in two, while the remaining nine were considered at high risk of bias, largely driven by open-label study designs and incomplete outcome data.ConclusionsDigital and virtual therapeutics represent a rapidly evolving and clinically promising frontier in migraine care. REN and VR modalities yield reproducible short-term benefits, while digital behavioral tools enhance feasibility, patient engagement, and continuity of care. Future large-scale, blinded RCTs with standardized endpoints are warranted to confirm efficacy, establish long-term outcomes, and define the role of digital health within integrated, precision-based migraine management.Trial RegistrationPROSPERO, CRD420251078125.