Engineering manganese-based cathodes for low-cost and high-energy rechargeable batteries

Manganese (Mn)-based cathode materials are emerging as strong candidates for next-generation low-cost rechargeable batteries due to their high energy density, natural abundance, and environmental benignity. However, severe performance degradation caused by voltage decay, transition metal dissolution, and sluggish reaction kinetics has hindered their further commercialization for decades. Herein, we systematically review the composition, electrochemical behavior, and degradation mechanisms of representative Mn-based cathodes in both lithium- and sodium-ion batteries. State-of-the-art optimization strategies are summarized that mitigate key limitations while enhancing electrochemical performance. Advanced in situ/operational characterization and theoretical modeling techniques are valued for their role in revealing degradation pathways and guiding rational design. Additionally, techno-economic analysis and life-cycle assessment are introduced to evaluate the feasibility of Mn-based cathodes for sustainable energy storage, which outlines a roadmap for advancing Mn-based cathodes from fundamental research to commercial deployment.