Pea protein isolate‑sodium alginate-based plant-based meat analogue: dual crosslinking and molecular insight...

This study focused on the formulation of plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs) composed of pea protein isolate‑sodium alginate (PPI-SA) using a combined internal gelation, enzymatic crosslinking, and freezing technique. Ethyl maltol (EM) was added as a flavoring agent along with a structural stabilizer. The maximum hardness and chewiness were observed in UC-1 (177.40 N) and C-1 (448.95 mj), respectively. The cooking loss was reduced from 21.48% (C-0) to 16.52% in flavored PBMAs, while the water holding capacity increased slightly to 72.50% (C-3) from 70.76% (C-0). The encapsulation efficiency was observed from 79.71% to 92.40%. FTIR and XRD analysis confirmed the presence of strong molecular interactions and partial disruption of crystallinity following cooking, indicating that the addition of EM has a positive effect on the PPI-SA matrix. The results of LF-NMR showed that the mobility of immobilized water in cooked samples decreased, which indicates a more compact network. The in vitro EM release was proportional to the amount added, while the digestibility ranged from 16% to 29% (SGF) and 45% to 68% (SIF). Molecular docking and MD simulation supported these results by indicating stable interaction of EM with pea globulin through hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic, and van der Waals interactions. These findings indicated that combined gelation enhanced the mechanical strength, water retention, flavor stability, and nutritional performance of PBMA, demonstrating its capacity for the development of clean-label meat analogues with higher quality.