Genetically engineered organisms for sustainable bioremediation of polluted environments

Environmental pollution, a critical global challenge fuelled by industrialization, urbanization, and population growth, threatens ecosystems, biodiversity, and public health. Genetically engineered organisms (GEOs)-bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants provide innovative bioremediation strategies to combat this crisis by degrading or detoxifying pollutants, including hydrocarbons, heavy metals, pesticides, and microplastics. Through targeted genetic modifications, such as enzyme or metabolic pathway enhancements, GEOs improve pollutant degradation efficiency, environmental adaptability, and resilience in contaminated ecosystems. This review synthesizes GEO-based bioremediation mechanisms, including bioaugmentation, bio-stimulation, and phytoremediation, and their applications across water, soil, and air pollution. We highlight GEOs' specificity, sustainability, and long-term efficacy while addressing ecological risks, such as unintended gene transfer, regulatory complexities, and ethical concerns. Case studies demonstrate synergies with emerging technologies like nanotechnology and biosensors, optimizing bioremediation outcomes. Despite challenges, advancements in multi-functional GEOs and regulatory frameworks, coupled with innovations like Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR), promise to bridge gaps and enhance scalability. Future research should prioritise ecological safety and regulatory alignment to fully harness GEOs' potential, ensuring sustainable, eco-friendly solutions for managing complex modern pollution.