Following Camels Between Bone and Culture: Camel-Human Interactions in China from the Neolithic to the Late Imperial...

Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus) have long been recognized in China as key agents of long-distance connectivity, based largely on iconographic and textual evidence, while osteological data have rarely been incorporated into discussion. Because these data have seldom been examined within a unified analytical framework, current knowledge of the development and shifting patterns of camel-human relationships remains fragmentary. To address this gap, the present study provides a detailed analysis of available camel osteological material from archaeological contexts in northern China and integrates it with broader archaeological and historical evidence. Our results identify diverse forms of interaction across time and space, including camel exploitation for transport and labor, consumption, funerary practices, and craft production. Spatiotemporal patterns indicate a persistent concentration of osteological remains in China's northern frontier zones, whereas the record remains sporadic in central regions despite increasing camel representations in material culture and texts. This enduring distribution reflects ecological suitability and sustained economic integration in arid zones. The absence of such conditions in Central China meant that camels were never fully incorporated into local everyday life; instead, they primarily operated within imperial logistical and political systems and came to be culturally important through their role in broader exchange networks.