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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 10, 2026

Manufacturing Simple and Inexpensive Soil Surface Temperature and Gravimetric Water Content Sensors
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Development of a 3D-Printed Capacitive Sensor for Soil Water Content Estimation Using Nickel-Based Conductive Paint.

Alessandro Comegna1, Shawkat B M Hassan1, Antonio Coppola2

  • 1Department of Agricultural Forestry Food and Environmental Sciences (DAFE), University of Basilicata, 85100 Potenza, Italy.

Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)
|March 14, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

A new low-cost capacitive sensor accurately estimates soil volumetric water content (θ). Developed using 3D printing and conductive paint, it offers a reliable alternative for environmental monitoring and precision agriculture applications.

Keywords:
3D printingcapacitive-based sensorsconductive paintlow-cost systemssoil sensorssoil water content

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Area of Science:

  • Soil Science
  • Environmental Monitoring
  • Agricultural Engineering

Background:

  • Accurate measurement of soil hydraulic parameters like volumetric water content (θ) is crucial for understanding hydrological, agricultural, and environmental processes.
  • Capacitive sensors are increasingly favored for θ estimation due to their cost-effectiveness, robustness, and suitability for distributed and IoT-based monitoring.
  • Existing methods require validation for new sensor technologies in diverse soil types.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop and validate a low-cost capacitive sensor for estimating soil volumetric water content (θ).
  • To utilize 3D printing and conductive paint for fabricating the sensor's capacitive electrode.
  • To assess the sensor's performance against the established time-domain reflectometry (TDR) method.

Main Methods:

  • A novel capacitive sensor was constructed using 3D-printed guides and nickel-based conductive paint.
  • The sensor operated at a frequency of 60 MHz, measuring soil dielectric permittivity to infer θ.
  • Calibration and validation were performed in laboratory settings using three distinct soil textures, comparing results with TDR measurements.

Main Results:

  • The developed 3D-printed capacitive sensor demonstrated effective performance in estimating soil volumetric water content (θ).
  • The sensor exhibited good reliability across a validation range of θ from 0 to 0.40 cm³/cm³.
  • Performance was comparable to the reference TDR technique within the tested range.

Conclusions:

  • The low-cost, 3D-printed capacitive sensor is a viable tool for accurate soil moisture estimation.
  • This technology offers a promising solution for affordable and distributed soil water monitoring in various environmental and agricultural contexts.
  • Further research can explore its application in different soil types and field conditions.