Defect-Intent Ambiguity Addressing for Training-Free Deterministic PCB Defect Localization via Template Selection and...

Automated optical inspection (AOI) for printed circuit boards (PCBs) requires localizing small, sparse defects under illumination drift and minor placement misalignment, while supporting fast, auditable pass/fail decisions. This paper presents a training-free, reference-based digital image processing framework with no learning/training stage that compares each defective query image with a small library of defect-free reference templates (for the same PCB layout/revision) using a small set of interpretable control parameters. A reference is selected by coarse-to-fine matching (fast pre-screening followed by SSIM refinement on a central region), and an optional global alignment is applied only when it increases SSIM to limit defect-driven over-correction. Defects are highlighted by a defect-likelihood field that fuses an SSIM-derived structural dissimilarity map with a normalized absolute-difference map, followed by connected-component extraction to produce confidence-ranked bounding boxes. The method achieves Precision = 0.9663, Recall = 0.9987, and F1 = 0.9822 at the best-F1 operating point (0.149 false positives per image). Under the adopted box-matching protocol, average precision reaches 0.984. Precision-recall and FROC curves are reported to support threshold selection under different false-alarm budgets.