Modulating conducting inks for robust piezoelectric nanogenerators: A critical review of elastomeric composites

The conducting inks are a rapidly growing field due to their growing demand. A rise in self-powered, flexible electronic systems has accelerated interest in piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENGs) as sustainable energy sources. Central to their performance is the development of smart conducting inks compatible with elastomeric matrices that offer mechanical compliance, electrical conductivity, and environmental durability. This review critically examines recent advancements in the formulation, functionalization, and integration of conducting inks, such as carbon-based nanomaterials, metallic nanoparticles, and conductive polymers, within elastomer-based composites tailored for PENG applications. We highlight key strategies for optimizing the interfacial interaction between inks and elastomers, enhancing piezoelectric output, and enabling multifunctionality. Moreover, the review discusses scalable fabrication techniques, emerging applications in wearable and biomedical electronics, and the challenges impeding large-scale deployment. Finally, we present future perspectives on designing next-generation conductive-elastomer systems that bridge the gap between materials innovation and practical energy-harvesting solutions.