Stage-specific therapeutic strategies for combating bacterial biofilm infections: Recent advances and future...

Bacterial biofilms are highly organized microbial communities that drive chronic and recurrent infections, posing significant clinical challenges. The extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) matrix and dormant cells of biofilms confer strong tolerance to conventional antimicrobials, and their formation through distinct developmental stages presents unique vulnerabilities that can be therapeutically targeted. This review summarizes recent advances in functional biomaterial-based strategies aimed at combating biofilm-associated infections, including prevention of bacterial adhesion, disruption of EPS, eradication of dormant cells, and enhanced antimicrobial penetration. We discuss both in vitro and in vivo validations, emphasize the importance of prophylactic approaches, and highlight emerging multifunctional platforms that improve infection control and biofilm clearance. By linking mechanistic insights to translational applications, this review provides a framework for next-generation therapies capable of effectively combating biofilm-driven infections at each developmental stage.