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Biosphere expansion drives Earth's secular oxygenation while tectonics modulate oxygen variability revealed by

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
|March 16, 2026
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Summary

Atmospheric oxygen levels, crucial for complex life, are reconstructed using trace elements in pyrite and machine learning. Long-term oxygen trends link to biosphere growth, while short-term changes reflect tectonic events like supercontinent cycles.

Keywords:
atmospheric oxygen reconstructionmachine learningpyrite chemistrysupercontinent

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Area of Science:

  • Geochemistry
  • Paleoclimatology
  • Earth System Science

Background:

  • Atmospheric oxygen's rise transformed Earth and enabled complex life.
  • Understanding long-term oxygen fluctuations is limited by proxy resolution and temporal coverage.
  • Trace elements in sedimentary pyrite serve as archives for ancient ocean redox conditions and atmospheric oxygen levels.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To reconstruct atmospheric oxygen evolution over 3.5 billion years.
  • To investigate the relationship between oxygen fluctuations, biosphere expansion, and tectonic events.
  • To refine the understanding of Earth's redox evolution and planetary habitability.

Main Methods:

  • Integration of high-resolution geochemical data from pyrite grains spanning 3.5 billion years.
  • Application of machine learning techniques to analyze trace element data.
  • Identification of trace element groups linked to redox-sensitive and hydrothermal influences.

Main Results:

  • Reconstruction reveals a tight coupling between the secular trend of atmospheric oxygen and biosphere expansion.
  • Short-term oxygen fluctuations are influenced by tectonic events, including supercontinent assembly and breakup.
  • Primary oxygenation events correlate with biological expansion; continental assembly is linked to oxygenation, while breakup correlates with reducing conditions.

Conclusions:

  • Earth's atmospheric evolution is a complex interplay of biological productivity, tectonics, and ocean chemistry.
  • The study refines the temporal dynamics of Earth's redox evolution and provides a framework for understanding early Earth environments.
  • Findings inform models of environmental change on early Earth and other potentially habitable planets.