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Fabrication And Characterization Of Photonic Crystal Slow Light Waveguides And Cavities

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Low-loss process optimization for 3D IOX waveguides fabricated by matrix electrodes using Gaussian process regression

Shu Liu, Yu Zheng, Ke Zeng

|March 17, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

A novel fabrication method for three-dimensional ion-exchanged (3D IOX) waveguides was developed using a matrix-electrode configuration. This method significantly improved transmission efficiency by reducing waveguide loss by 27%.

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Area of Science:

Photonics
Materials Science
Optical Engineering

Background:

Three-dimensional ion-exchanged (3D IOX) waveguides are crucial for advanced photonic applications like co-packaged optics and high-density integration.
Existing fabrication methods require optimization for improved performance and efficiency.

Purpose of the Study:

To propose and validate a novel fabrication method for 3D IOX waveguides using a matrix-electrode configuration.
To develop a comprehensive multiphysics model for simulating the 3D IOX waveguide fabrication process.
To create an integrated optimization algorithm for enhancing waveguide performance.

Main Methods:

Fabrication of 3D IOX waveguides using a matrix-electrode configuration.
Development of a multiphysics model integrating electric field, ion concentration, temperature, and refractive index.
Experimental validation of the multiphysics model.
Implementation of an optimization algorithm combining piecewise power-law distribution, Gaussian process regression, and Bayesian optimization.

Main Results:

The multiphysics model demonstrated high predictive accuracy with a 0.06% average refractive index error and a 0.6 µm burial-depth error.
Experimental results showed excellent agreement with the model's predictions.
The integrated optimization algorithm achieved high prediction accuracy (R²=0.9996, RMSE=0.0061).
Optimized 3D SSC waveguides exhibited a significant reduction in transmission loss from 1.52 to 0.1 dB, a 27% improvement in transmission efficiency.

Conclusions:

The proposed matrix-electrode fabrication method and multiphysics model offer a highly accurate approach for 3D IOX waveguides.
The integrated optimization algorithm effectively enhances waveguide performance, significantly reducing transmission loss.
This work paves the way for more efficient and high-density photonic integration.