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Development of a High-Sensitivity Electrochemical Immunoassay Using a Fully 3D-Printed Electrocatalytic

Niamh Docherty1, Chloe L Miller2, Alexandra Dobrea1,3

  • 1University of Strathclyde, Thomas Graham Building Centre for Advanced Measurement Science and Health Translation, Pure and Applied Chemistry, 295 Cathedral St, Glasgow G1 1XL, U.K.

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|March 19, 2026
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Summary

3D-printed microelectrodes using polylactic acid and multiwalled carbon nanotubes enable rapid, sensitive cardiac troponin I detection in serum. This scalable technology advances point-of-care diagnostics.

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Analytical Chemistry
  • Biomedical Engineering

Background:

  • Electrochemical biosensors offer potential for point-of-care diagnostics but face challenges in electrode fabrication, including cost, complexity, and scalability.
  • Current methods often require intricate surface functionalization, leading to variability and limited stability.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To evaluate composite filaments for fused filament fabrication (FFF) of 3D-printed electrochemical electrodes.
  • To compare filament composition (polylactic acid, carbon black, multiwalled carbon nanotubes) and electrode size for sensitive measurements.
  • To develop a 3D-printed accessory for improved measurement consistency and throughput.

Main Methods:

  • Composite filaments of polylactic acid (PLA), carbon black (CB), and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were used for FFF of electrodes.
  • Electrode diameters were varied from macroscale to microscale to assess electron transfer efficiency.
  • A 3D-printed accessory, "The Consistent Dipper," was developed for standardized electrode immersion.
  • Cardiac troponin I (cTnI) electrochemical immunoassay was performed using optimized PLA/MWCNT microelectrodes in undiluted human serum.

Main Results:

  • PLA/MWCNT microelectrodes demonstrated superior current density and reduced background noise compared to CB electrodes.
  • A detection limit of 7.4 pg mL⁻¹ for cTnI was achieved with MWCNT microelectrodes in serum, a 19-fold improvement over macroelectrodes.
  • Optimized assay conditions yielded a clinically relevant cTnI detection limit of 85 pg mL⁻¹ within 1 hour.

Conclusions:

  • FFF of microscale PLA/MWCNT electrodes provides a scalable and cost-effective platform for rapid immunodiagnostics.
  • This approach overcomes limitations of traditional electrode fabrication for point-of-care applications.
  • The study demonstrates the first application of microscale 3D-printed PLA/MWCNT electrodes for clinical biomarker detection.