Post-error slowing and individual differences in metacognition

The ability to adjust behavior in an adaptive manner is critical for functioning and has been linked to the metacognitive processes of monitoring and controlling cognition. A prominent behavioral adjustment is post-error slowing (PES): the increased reaction time typically observed after an individual makes an error. There has been widespread debate regarding whether PES is an adaptive behavior that reflects top-down control processes or nonadaptive behavior that reflects bottom-up attention orientation. An adaptive behavior should positively impact goal-directed performance. However, there are mixed findings as to whether PES improves task performance. Here, we proposed an alternative approach by investigating PES in self-paced preparation time. Adjustments in self-paced preparation improve performance and have been linked to metacognition, but these relationships have not been explored for post-error adjustments. Data were collected from 2022 to 2023 in 139 adolescents (11-15 years) and 140 adult participants (18-35 years). Participants demonstrated significant preparation time slowing following errors in a task-switch paradigm. Importantly, post-error preparation slowing magnitude was positively related to better performance (accuracy, reaction time, and switch cost) and to enhanced metacognition/strategic knowledge. This shows that post-error preparation slowing is adaptive and is related to individual differences in participants' metacognition, in both adolescent and adult populations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).