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Factors Affecting Activity Coefficient01:17

Factors Affecting Activity Coefficient

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The extended Debye-Hückel equation indicates that the activity coefficient of an ion in an aqueous solution at 25°C depends on three partially interdependent properties: the ionic strength of the solution, the charge of the ion, and the ion size. 
The activity coefficient value for an ion is close to one when the solution has almost zero ionic strength, i.e., when the solution shows close to ideal behavior. As the ionic strength of the solution increases from 0 to 0.1 mol/L, a...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 22, 2026

Comparative Analysis of Lower Limb Kinematics between the Initial and Terminal Phase of 5km Treadmill Running
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Biomechanical Factors Associated with Intraindividual Differences in Running Economy Across Advanced Footwear

Dominik Fohrmann1, Marcelle Schaffarczyk2, Carolin Menge3

  • 1Institute of Interdisciplinary Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, MSH Medical School Hamburg, Am Kaiserkai 1, 20457, Hamburg, Germany. dominik.fohrmann@medicalschool-hamburg.de.

Sports Medicine - Open
|March 20, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Advanced footwear technology (AFT) improves running economy (RE) by reducing ground contact time. Individual responses vary, highlighting the importance of athlete-shoe interaction for optimal performance in long-distance running.

Keywords:
Carbon fiber plateOxygen costPEBASuper shoes

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Area of Science:

  • Biomechanics
  • Sports Science
  • Exercise Physiology

Background:

  • Advanced footwear technology (AFT) aims to enhance long-distance running performance by improving running economy (RE).
  • Individual responses to AFT vary significantly, suggesting biomechanical differences play a key role.
  • Understanding these individual biomechanical responses is crucial for optimizing AFT benefits.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To identify specific biomechanical factors associated with changes in running economy (RE) when using different advanced footwear technology (AFT) models.
  • To investigate the intra-individual variability in biomechanical responses to AFT.
  • To determine if AFT models differentially affect running biomechanics and RE.

Main Methods:

  • Twenty-two trained long-distance runners participated in a randomized within-subject crossover study.
  • Runners performed 5-minute bouts at marathon pace wearing three distinct AFT models.
  • Collected data included gas exchange for RE and 3D kinematics/spatiotemporal variables; statistical models identified biomechanical associations.

Main Results:

  • Shorter ground contact time was significantly associated with improved running economy (RE) across all footwear conditions.
  • A ~1% improvement in RE was observed for every 4 ms decrease in ground contact time.
  • No significant group-level differences in RE were found between the tested AFT models.

Conclusions:

  • Advanced footwear technology (AFT) models that reduce individual ground contact time are linked to enhanced running economy (RE).
  • The optimal AFT model is athlete-dependent, emphasizing the significance of individual athlete-shoe interactions.
  • Future research should focus on footwear individualization by exploring AFT properties and individual biomechanics for further performance gains.