Harmonizing akermanite and starch-based fabrication techniques on 3D printed scaffolds for empowering bone tissue...

Regenerating bone tissue poses a formidable challenge in regenerative therapies, particularly for extensive or intricate defects that exceed the body's innate repair mechanisms. The advancement of 3D printed scaffolds has emerged as a promising method for creating biomimetic constructs with accurate architectural designs. However, a major hurdle is finding architectural materials that can effectively deliver mechanical strength, biodegradability, and bioactivity all at once. This study details the fabrication of poly lactic acid (PLA) scaffolds using Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), which feature square-shaped pores arranged at 90° angles between the X and Y axes. To improve both the biological performance and mechanical characteristics, the surfaces were coated with a starch-based solution containing akermanite through electrospinning, film casting, and sponge techniques. Preliminary results showed that akermanite incorporation markedly improved the compressive strength and bioactivity across all fabricated scaffolds, while preserving their architectural stability. Among various architectural designs developed, the modified composition with electrospun fibers exhibited superior crystallinity (∼38.12%), enabling a controlled degradation rate of 45% over 14 days. The resultant scaffold also displayed 99% cell viability and a great condition for MG63 cell attachment. Also, the material demonstrated proper antibacterial performance, with colony counts measuring (1.04 ± 0.05) × 10⁶ and (2.02 ± 0.48) × 10⁷ against S. aureus and E. coli, respectively. Consequently, this study establishes a solid foundation for further in vivo investigations and for the clinical application of starch-based bio-ceramic composites in bone repair. Future investigations should focus on comprehensive in vivo studies to assess the long-term durability and biological performance of the platform under physiological conditions. At the same time, strategies such as incorporating bioactive agents including growth factors or stem cells could be explored to further enhance its osteogenic potential. In parallel, optimizing the geometrical architecture of the 3D-printed substrate should also be pursued, as structural design parameters may play a critical role in improving cellular responses and overall bone regeneration efficiency.