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Other Glycolytic Pathways01:24

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The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) operates in parallel with glycolysis, facilitating the metabolism of both pentoses and glucose. This pathway consists of two distinct phases: the oxidative and non-oxidative phases. While it does not directly generate ATP, the intermediates formed during the process can integrate into glycolysis, contributing to cellular energy metabolism when required.Oxidative Phase: NADPH ProductionThe oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway is primarily...
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Nucleic acid biosynthesis is a fundamental biochemical process that produces the purine and pyrimidine nucleotides essential for DNA and RNA synthesis. This pathway maintains a balanced nucleotide pool, preventing imbalances that could jeopardize genetic integrity and cellular function. Given the crucial role of nucleotides, their synthesis is tightly regulated to ensure proper cellular homeostasis.Purine BiosynthesisThe biosynthesis of purine nucleotides begins with ribose-5-phosphate, a...
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Cellular needs and conditions vary from cell to cell and change within individual cells over time. For example, the required enzymes and energetic demands of stomach cells are different from those of fat storage cells, skin cells, blood cells, and nerve cells. Furthermore, a digestive cell works much harder to process and break down nutrients during the time that closely follows a meal compared with many hours after a meal. As these cellular demands and conditions vary, so do the amounts and...
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Proteins undergo chemical modifications that trigger changes in the charge, structure, and conformation of the proteins. Phosphorylation, acetylation, glycosylation, nitrosylation, ubiquitination, lipidation, methylation, and proteolysis are various protein modifications that regulate protein activity. Such modifications are usually enzyme-driven.
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The addition or removal of phosphate groups from proteins is the most common chemical modification that regulates cellular processes. These modifications can affect the structure, activity, stability, and localization of proteins within cells as well as their interactions with other proteins.
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Updated: Mar 23, 2026

Assaying for Inorganic Polyphosphate in Bacteria
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Polyphosphate metabolism: Enzymatic pathways and regulation.

Sarah Krukenberg1, Giuliano A Kullik1, Thomas Renné2

  • 1Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.

Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta. Molecular Cell Research
|March 21, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Polyphosphate (polyP), a vital polymer in all life, has key roles in energy and cellular processes. Understanding its synthesis and breakdown enzymes offers new therapeutic targets for diseases like infection and thrombosis.

Keywords:
biopolymerendopolyphosphatasesevolutionexopolyphosphatasesh-prunephosphatepolyphosphatepolyphosphate kinasepolyphosphate synthetase

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Area of Science:

  • Biochemistry
  • Molecular Biology
  • Cellular Physiology

Background:

  • Polyphosphate (polyP) is an evolutionarily conserved inorganic polymer present in all domains of life.
  • PolyP plays critical roles in energy storage, metal chelation, phosphate buffering, and regulating physiological processes like blood coagulation and mitochondrial metabolism.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To summarize current knowledge on polyphosphate (polyP)-metabolizing enzymes.
  • To highlight the differences in polyP metabolism across prokaryotes, yeast, and mammals.
  • To identify potential therapeutic targets based on polyP metabolic pathways.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature on polyP synthesis and degradation enzymes.
  • Comparative analysis of polyP metabolic enzymes in different organisms (prokaryotes, yeast, mammals).
  • Discussion of implicated enzymes like polyphosphate kinases (PPK1, PPK2), VTC complex, F1F0-ATP synthase, Nudix hydrolases, and h-Prune.

Main Results:

  • PolyP synthesis in prokaryotes is mainly by polyphosphate kinases (PPK1, PPK2), absent in higher eukaryotes.
  • In yeast, the vacuolar transporter chaperone (VTC) complex mediates polyP synthesis and vacuolar import.
  • PolyP degradation involves exopolyphosphatases (PPX) and endopolyphosphatases (PPN), including Nudix hydrolases and h-Prune in mammals, crucial for phosphate homeostasis.

Conclusions:

  • The enzymatic machinery for polyP synthesis in mammals remains unclear, with potential roles for mitochondrial F1F0-ATP synthase and inositol pyrophosphate signaling.
  • PolyP-metabolizing enzymes are critical for maintaining intracellular phosphate balance and dynamic polyP turnover.
  • Elucidating these pathways can lead to novel therapeutic strategies for infections, thrombosis, and metabolic disorders.