Plant-derived extracellular vesicles as tools and targets for inflammatory diseases

Inflammatory diseases remain a major clinical challenge due to their complex pathologies and the limitations of current anti-inflammatory therapies. Conventional treatments, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and biologics, often provide incomplete relief and cause significant side effects, creating an urgent need for safer, more effective interventions. Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs)-natural nanocarriers with inherent biocompatibility and cross-kingdom regulatory capacity-have emerged as a novel therapeutic approach that could address these shortcomings by safely delivering anti-inflammatory signals across species boundaries. This review examines PDEVs as both therapeutic tools and targets in inflammatory diseases, delineating their unique properties, anti-inflammatory mechanisms, and translational potential. Key topics include the biogenesis, composition, and isolation of PDEVs; their multifaceted roles in modulating immune responses; and evidence of efficacy in various models of inflammatory disease. Collectively, current findings indicate that PDEVs represent biocompatible, multi-target agents that effectively attenuate inflammation and promote tissue repair by overcoming the barriers to drug delivery and toxicity limitations of conventional therapies. Ongoing advances in omics technologies and bioengineering are expected to advance the characterization and engineering of PDEVs, fostering their integration into precision medicine approaches. Addressing challenges such as large-scale manufacturing, targeting specificity, and regulatory standardization will be crucial for translating PDEVs into safe, personalized anti-inflammatory therapies.